This part of the guide aims at providing the tourist with historical and archaeological information on Pergamum, the famous City of the Attalus Dynasty, the rich Capital of Roman Asia Minör and finally on the picturesque Turkish town of Bergama.
Pergamum enjoyed its most brilliant period during the reigns of Eumenes II and Attalus II. These kıngs concentrated ali their efforts on the development and embellishment of their city. Romans added the Temple of Trajan, and the not very important lower city, along the River Selinus (Bergama Cay).
The ruins of Pergamum cover an area of 35.000 square meters which, considering the extent of the ruins, is not very wide. The earliest building was a castle built on the highest point of the hill. Gradually growing in size the city spread beyond its walls and occupied, during the Roman period, part of the plain below.
The most important of the remains of Pergamum were found as a result of archaeological excavations, and are now among the richest collections of Paris, Berlin, Rome, Athens and İstanbul museums. Although much has been removed to various museums the impressive ruins stili stand and must be visited. Temples, royal palaces, private dwellings, agoras, terraces, theatres, gymnasiums, immense walls and gates are stili standing where they have stood for centuries, presenting an impressive spectacle.
The reliefs outside the walls of the Altar of Zeus, depicting the Battle of Gods with Giants, constitute one of the most brilliant pages of the history of art. Tried by many later artists, the subject never found such a powerful expression and perfection of style.
This magnificent city of Greco-Roman civilization was built on four rising terraces. The first terrace (the theater terrace) leaning against a supporttng wall has the following buildings: the Temple of Dyonisus and the Agora on the right, the Temple of Caracalla on the left, and in the middle the largest theater in the world with 80 rows of seats. On the second terrace, and above’ the theater, stands the great Altar of Zeus. From here one can reach the third terrace where the Temple of Athena Polias stands. On the fourth terrace is the Temple of Trajan. Thus the city of Pergamum consists of four terraces each rising above the other, and presenting with the harmonious arrangements of its buildings, one of the most beautiful historical panoramas ’ın’the world.
HISTORY OF PERGAMUM
The city was called after Pergamos, a legendary hero. Xenophon gives us the best description of the city in the 4th century B.C. He mentions that (339 B.C.) the city was under the rule of Hellas, a Persian prince. Liberated from the Persians by Alexander, Pergamum fell, following the death of the great commander, into the hands of Lysimachus (301 B.C.) The city’s period of prosperity begins from this date.
Pergamum During The Hellenistic Era
During the Hellenistic era Pergamum was capital of a kingdom which ruled a very large territory. Lysimachus hid Alexander’s treasure here and left Philetaerus, one of his commanders, in charge. With the death of Lysimachus, Philetaerus declared himself king (283 B.C.), thus becoming the first of a dynasty which ruled the country for 150 years. Philetaerus was succeeded by able rulers under the names of Eumenes and Attalus. Of these rulers Eumenes I established internal order, and Attalus I gained victories against the Galatians, improved the economy and diplomatic relations of the country. During his reign the Kingdom of Pergamum extended as far as the Taurus Mountains and became a Progressive and influential State of the Hellenistic era (197 B.C.).
Pergamum reached its golden age in the second century B.C. Under the rule of the above-mentioned kings the city grew in size, many of the works of art, particularly the Altar of Zeus, one of the masterpieces of the Hellenistic age, and the Library were built during this period. Pergamum became a çenter of learning and art. Kings of Pergamum improved diplomatic relations and Attalus II had a harbor constructed in Ephesus, and a stoa erected in Athens. Upon the death of Attalus III, the 150 year old Kingdom of Pergamum came to an end, was annexed to Rome in accordance with his wish. Attalus III always regarded Rome as the protector of Pergamum (133 B.C.).
Pergamum İn The Roman Era
Soldiers and wealthy people caused many disturbances in Pergamum upon the country’s annexation to Rome, but these were soon put down by Romans who acted very severely in their new Asian province. İt was for this reason that people welcomed the attack of Mithridates, King of Pontus, (88 B.C.) on Pergamum.
The Romans defeated Mithridates after a war which lasted for 27 years and re-established their hegemony över Anatolia (63 B.C.).
Under Roman rule Pergamum was further developed and embel- lished with many buildings. İt was during this period that Antony presented the famous Pergamum Library to Cleopatra. Galen, or.
Galenus of Pergamum, famous physlclan, was appointed court physician by the Emperor Marcus Aurellus (A.D. 157-180). Galenus, who wrote about 500 works on medicine, is one of the greatest figures in the history of medicine. İt is mentioned in one of his works that Pergamum had at that time a population of 160.000 people of whom 40.000 were natives and 120.000 foreigners. During the time of Galenus the Asclepieum at Pergamum was one of the leadlng health centers in the world. An earthquake which took place during the reign of the Emperor Valerius I {A.D. 253-260) destroyed the Asclepieum and the city of Pergamum. As the Emperor was later faced with many difficulties the city never recovered its former magnificience.
Pergamum in The Byzantine and Ottoman Eras
With the division of the Roman Empire, Pergamum remained within the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Byzantine era can be said to have started there in the 4th century. The Church of St. John, one of the seven famous churches of vvestern Anatolia, was established at Pergamum. During the Arab invasion Pergamum suffered serious destruction. During the 12th century Pergamum passed into the possession of the Seljuk Turks, who erected many new buildings in the city, Pergamum came under Ottoman rule in 1330.
ASCLEPİEUM
Founded during the 4th century B.C. this institution played an important role in the treatment of the sick of Asia Minör. Beginning to attract attention during the period of the kingdom, the institution gained a world-wide reputation during the Roman period. Even the Emperor Caracalla came here to be cured of his illness. İn gratitude he had an amphitheater capable of holding 50.000 people, and other large buildings, erected for the city.
Aristides a famous teacher of rhetoric of the time came here to be cured of an illness after having suffered from it for 17 years. He expressed his gratitude in long panegyrics and left us some valuable Information about the general condition of the Asclepieum.
Patients who were cured of their diseases used to make voluntary offerings according to their station. Among these were buildings, statues and inscriptions.
Methods of treatment included suggestion, dreams, praying, sun and water baths, exercises, honey cures, walking bare-footed, listening to music, drug therapy and giving blood, ete. Many of these methods were applied scientifically by Galenus.
The Asclepieum was surrounded by woods and sheltered by mountains.
RUINS OF ASCLEPIEUM
The Sacred Way, whlch is one kilometer long, begins from the Ruined Gate and leads to the Asclepleum. Patients and visitors reaching the propylaeum would proceed from here to the large s’quare which was surrounded by galleries oh the three sides. The Library, the Theatre, the public facilities, the Sacred Passage, the Temple of Telesphoros, the Temple of Asclepius, and the Holy Spring are the main places of interest here.
The Library: This building which is situated at the northern corner of the courtyard of Asclepieum was also used as an imper- ial hali. The niches in its walls and the floor were covered wlth colored marble plaques, the broken pieces of which can now be seen on the ground.
The Theater: A 25 metres long porticoed gallery leads to the theater in the northern corner of the courtyard: This theater which seats 5000 people, has a box for twelve people, an orchestra and a stage. The stage had a three-storied façade with five doors looking on to the courtyard.‘A statue of Dyonisus found here is now in the Bergama Museum.
A 95 metres long western colonnade extends from the theater to the public facilites from where another colonnade, the Southern one, extends as far as the temples. İn the middle of the courtyard is the Sacred fountain (spring) and immediately in front of it is the 82 metres long Sacred Corridor (passage). The 12 windows of the passage used to be closed to produce a gloomy atmosphere. Patients would go to the temple through this corridor.
The Temple of Telesphoros : This was a 20 metres high, two- storied building at the end of the Sacred Corridor. Patients used to sleep and have dreams here. There were six large niches wlth statues in the building.
The Temple of Asclepius: The most sacred part of the Health Çenter, this building was a 20 meters high structure covered with a dome. There is a marble fountain on the right. A snake shaped bronze pipe was found here.
The Bergama Museum: Opened to public in 1936, the museum is full of various rare specimens of material from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Greek, Roman and Byzantine periods.
OTHER MONUMENTS
There is a Roman Theater capable of holding 30.000 people, near the Ruined Gate, a Roman Amphitheater capable of holding 50.000 people, and remains of a large circus.
The Basilica – Serapium: Basilicas were first used as places where people met to transact business, but later large temples were
also called by that name. The Basllica at Pergamum was a temple dedicated to the worship of Serapla, an Egyptlan god. Bullt on the bank of the Selinus (Bergama Çayı) this building Is one of the most important existing buildings of Anatolia. The building rose to a height of 25 meters and was originally covered with a wooden roof. The 35 ton marble block at the entrance is sufficient to give an idea of the size of this impressive structure. Below the roof were boxes where stairs led from both sides. İn the niches in the side walls were statues, and above them were windows decorated with friezes. The Jovver parts of the walls made of red tiles were’covered with marble, and the upper parts left in original red tile work, thus presenting a beautiful color harmony. There was a large statue in the curved altar inside the building.
Bullt by Hadrian during the 2nd century A.D., the Basllica was later used as a church by the Byzantines, who named it the Church of St. John. Nile water used to be put in the hollow part to the right of the entrance. The towers on both sides were built in honour of the Egyptian gods Isis and Harpocrates or Horus.
The Basilica was surrounded by a gallery consisting of 200 columns.
The Tiled Minaret: The minaret made of colored tiles, and the adjoining mosque, are Turkish works at Pergamum.
RUINS OF THE ACROPOLIS
The Altar of Zeus: Only the foundations of this famous büilding can now be seen. İt was built during the period 180-160 B.C. by Eumenes II, King of Pergamum. The outer walls were decorated with reliefs depicting scenes of a battle between Gods and Giants, representing the conflict of Pergamum’s rulers and the Galatians. The reliefs on the interior wails showed incidents from the lives of national heroes. Marble statues were placed round the building.
The featuring of Giants and Gods in the battle scenes of these reliefs which decorated the alter erected after the war between Pergamum and Galatia indicates that the people of Pergamum shared the typical Greek outlook. The Greeks refrained from pictorial representation of contemporary events in their works of art. What Was important fpr them was not the event itself, but what it meant. Thus, we see in these reliefs not the victory över non-Hellenic barbarians, but the victory of Hellenism över a barbaric world, devoid of any spirit and feeiing.
The discovery of some of the reliefs led to systematic exca- vations on the’ Acropolis in 1877, and the altar was unearthed.
Plan of the Altar of Zeus
The western part of the terrace between the Temple of Athena Polias and the Upper Agora is a steep indine, the top of which com- mands a good view in three directions. The altar is built in the mlddle of the terrace and rises to a height of 12 meters. The reliefs cOvering its northern, Southern, and eastern façades are 120 metres long. The sacrifical procession used to proceed from the east, and the animals killed down below, carried to the upper part to be burned and offered to the god.
Erected during the reign of Eumenes II, this is the largest and most impressive altar so far excavated, and the finest work of art of the period of the Kingdom that is to be found in Pergamum.
The Upper Agora: The scattered ruins över the wide area to the east of the Altar of Zeus belong to the market place called the Upper Agora, The Upper Agora which is 44 meters wide, 84 meters long and has Doric columns 3.83 meters round.it ,is in a very ruinous State today. Some of its columns were removed during the Byzantlne period to be used in the construction of City walls.
The square base with geometric designs and lines of poetry was that of the statue Mercurius, the God of Commerce (Hermes). Water coming out of the horn in his hand and gradually becoming less, indicated the passage of time to the public.
Remalns of a beautlful llttle temple were found İn the westem part of the Agora. Agoras were market places wh)ch were also used for public meetings, speeches, and discussions on adminis- trative matters; they were, so to speak, the brains and lungs of a free city. They were the starting point of ali entertainments, public cere- monies, and athletic games.
Pergamum was the Capital of a kingdom. Although the king excercised his power över State affairs, the city was run İn a democratic manner. There was a city council with an executive body consisting of five. İt was this Council that was reponsible for running the Agora.
The City Gate : Near the palaces stand the ruins of a strongly built gate which was the gate of the first city walls. This gate separated the çenter of military and royal buildings from other buildings.
The Library : The well known Pergamum Library was situated between the palaces and the Temple of Athena Polias. The Library which was founded by Attalus I in 198 B.C., consisted of 4 halis and numerous smaller rooms, and possessed 200.000 volumes. İt also housed a museum of paintings and statues.
The books were placed along the northern and eastern walls, in order to protect them from the moisture of the Southern and western sides, and a space of half a meter was left between the shelves and the walls.
During excavations a large statue of Athena was found at the middle of the northern wall. Among other statues in the library was a bronze one of Homer. The inscription on the base of this statue shows that seven cities share the honor of claiming him. The modern custom of hanging portraits of great men in libraries is regarded as the continuation of this tradition of the Pergamum Library.
King Eumenes who made great efforts to make this library the finest one of- its kind was both a scholar and a patron of the arts.
Books were written on papyrus, a very valuable product of Egypt. The gradual ascendency of the Pergamum Library över that of Alexandria led Egypt to ban the shipment of papyrus to Pergamum. Following this, Pergamum worked on the development of a new substance to replace papyrus, and found parchment on which most of the great books of the classical ages were vvritten.
When Roman men of learning vvanted to study Greek culture, they found ali the necessary works in the Library of Pergamum.
Pergamum lost its famous library during the civil wars which broke out following the death of Caesar. Egypt was anxious to make up for the loss of the Alexandria Library which was burnt in
Palaces: On the highest and widest part of the Acropolis are seen the ruins of the royal palaces of the Attalus dynasty. İn the south of these ruins there are two porticoed courtyards. The columns are of Doric style. These buildings were used during the Roman and Byzantine periods. Among the ruins of these palaces four vases with fruit, flower and animal figures on them were found.
City Walls : These walls which have been kept in good condition up to our times, surround the upper part of the Acropolis, the Gymnasium, the Theater, the Agora and the gate, and extend toward the south. There are several domes on the walls.
Some of the walls date from the period of the kingdom. The parts made with mortar date from the Roman and Byzantine periods.
Oueen’s Gardens: On the highest part of the Acropolis is a place called the Oueen’s Gardens. During the 1927 excavations the foundations of 5 depots were discovered here. Built very skillfully, these depots bear characteristics of Greek, Roman and Byzantine peroids. Looking from this point towards the north one can see the aqueducts carrying water to the City from the Madra Mountains along the Selinus river.
Temple of Trajanus: One of the most important constructions of the Acropolis is the temple of Trajan, which was built during A.D. 98-117, on a terrace, the dimensions of which were 84 x 58 m. This terrace, in turn, had been constructed by means of an arched structure. The remains around the temple that look İlke a heap of marble, indicate that this building was destroyed by an earthquake. The original building covers an area of 27 x 20 m. İt has been found that there had been 6 pillars at the front, and 9 pillars on each side of the building. These had been added during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian.
There had been galleries, which could be descended by three steps, at the northeast and west of the temple square.
At the north of the square, two large benches, one of them square and the other round, have been found. İt has been suggested that these were used for the meetings of scholars and the exhibition of works of art. On one of them, there is an inscription about King Attalus II, Both benches, have been transferred to the Berlin Museum. İn another inscription found during the excavations, it had been ordered that demonstrations, should always be made in the name of Zeus and Trajanus. in other excavations, inscriptions about Trajanus, Plotinus, Hadrianus, Antonjus and Caracalla, as well as large busts of Hadrianus, have been found.
Temple of Athena : İn the northeast of the Theater, and in an area of 65 x 55 meters, are the ruins of the large temple erected in memory of Athena Polias, the patron goddess of Pergamum. This temple was built of granite över an artifical terrace during the reign of Attalus I The temple has Doric columns in the front and sides. The gate is built in two stories on four Doric columns. Extending from the courtyard in an easterly direction is a gallery of 65 meters, and another gallery of 40 meters extending from the north to south. A corridor led from the Temple to the Theatre. İt is said that those who walked through this corridor were granted their wish.
The park laid out by Eumenes II around the Temple had statues of many deities. Among them was one of Athena erected by King Attalus. During the Roman period the people of Pergamum erected a bronze statue of Augustus. There is a sacred spring near the Temple.
The Theater: Built över the southwestern elope of the Acropolis, the Theater enjoys a unique view, a view possessed by no Greek theater. Built on an area of 4200 square metres covering the mountain side, this is the steepest theater in the world. The amphitheater consists of 82 tiers of stands capable of seating 15,000 people. The stage is constructed över a terrace 250 metres long, and extending as far as the Temple ot Caracalla. This impressive theater has excellent acoustics.
Temple of Dionisus: İn the northwest and near the bottom of the terrace of the Theatre are the ruins of a Hellenistic temple built in the lonian style. Of great architectural value this building has lonian columns 10 metres long resting on Attic bases. Along the interior walls of the temple are columns and bases of statues, and a rather large marble covered altar.
The lonian temple was rebuilt by Caracalla after it was burnt down during the 3rd century.
Temple of Hera : Passing by the terrace in front of the Theater one joins the ancient road of Pergamum. This road leads to a temple erected in memory of Hera, sister and wife of Zeus. İt was built in lonian style during the reign of Attalus II. The floor of the temple is laid in mosaic. A statue of Zeus was found here during excavations.
Temple of Demeter: Erected in memory of Demeter, goddess of fertility, during the 2nd century B.C., this temple is the oldeet building in the Acropolis. İt was enlarged by Apollonis, wife of Attalus I. The two columns in the front are well preserved. İn the upper part of the temple were stands where people sat during religlous ceremonies.
Young Men’s Gymnasium: Of the several gymnasiums in the Pergamum Acropolis the largest and the most beautiful is the Young Men’s Gymnasium which was the çenter of cultural and athletic events. A porticoed courtyard measuring 107 x 90 metres was lined with shower baths covered with marble. There was an Odeon (concert hail) holding 1000 people, an imperial hail with a throne in the middle, a picture gallery, and a track for the running of foot races. Built during the period of the Kingdom, this building underwent restoration during the second century A.D. A statue of a dancer found here during excavations was taken to the Berlin Museum. To the east of the Young Men’s Gymnasium are the ruins of the Temple of Hermes.
Roman Bath : To the east of the Young Men’s Gymnasium are the remains of a bath built during the Roman period. Under the mosaic-laid floors pass the pipes which heated the bath, With many famous statues in niches in its marble covered walls, this bath was
the most impressive construction of its time. A passage led from the bath to the 195 meters long covered race course.
The Middle Gymnasium : To the east of the race course is the Middle Gymnasium where children between the ages 10 and 15 were trained.
Gate of the Second City Walls: Walking through the Middle Gymnasium the visitor comes to a gate with arches and towers bearing Hellenistic characteristics. This is where the stone paved Street of the ancient City began. Immediately to the left of the gate’ are a large pool and a gymnasium for children betvveen the ages of 6 and 9.
This gate is important both historically and architecturally. An arrow shot from here killed Dursun Bey, brother of Karasi Bey, on incident which led to the occupation of the region by the Ottoman Turks.
The House of Attalus: Visitors going down the ancient city Street will see on the right the House of Attalus, the Roman Consul. Imporfant from architectural and decorative points of view, the building had numerous halis and rooms, a kitchen, a bath, and a porticoed yard in front of it.
İn one of the rooms decorated with colored frescoes in the Greek and Roman styles, was a statue of Attalus in a niche. An inscription at the entrance said: «Eat of Attalus’ food, drink of his wine and enjoy his hospitality.»
The Lower Agora: Visitors coming down the ancient Street lined with important houses reach the Lower Agora. Built during the reign of King Eumenes II, this is a typical agora of the Hellenistic period.
The Agora consisted of a stone paved courtyard measuring 80 x 50 metres lined with two-storied shops. İn the middle was a Byzantine church built in the 4th century and used as a theological seminary. İt is likely that this is one of the Seven Churches of Asia.
İn the Agora which was the heart of the city laws vvritten on stonp slabs were proclaimed. Banking and poliçe regulations were found here. Apart from columns and capitals, there are in the Agora Byzantine cannon balls removed from the Oueen’s Garden on top of the hill.
The Gate of the Third City Walls : To the west of the Agora is the gate of the third city walls built by King Eumenes II. Protected with a large buttress, this gate opened on to a courtyard vvalled up oh two sides. The road leading up to the top of the Acropolis started from the interior doors to the west of the gate.